Voltage, current, resistance, power, Ohm’s law, and basic electrical measurements.

Diodes, transistors, LEDs, optocouplers, and their applications in embedded systems.

Signals, amplifiers, operational amplifiers, filters, and voltage regulation.

Logic levels, logic families, basic gates, and digital signals in embedded systems.

Linear regulators, SMPS basics, batteries, adapters, and power design for embedded boards.

Types of sensors, actuators, interfacing basics, and real-world examples.

Reading schematics, breadboard testing, multimeter usage, safety practices, and troubleshooting.